Forge Capsule

Blockchain Consensus: PoW vs PoS vs BFT Protocols

PoW: Nakamoto consensus, SHA-256 mining, 51% attack threshold, energy intensive. PoS: Casper FFG (Ethereum), validator stake slashing, finality in 2 epochs (~12.8 min). BFT variants: PBFT O(n^2) messages, HotStuff (pipelined, O(n)), Tendermint (deterministic finality). DAG-based: Narwhal/Bullshark (Sui), DAG-rider. Avalanche: metastability, sub-sampled voting, 1-2s finality. Solana: PoH (verifiable delay function) + Tower BFT. Ethereum 2.0: 32-slot epochs, LMD-GHOST + Casper. Forge governance: ZK-based voting, nullifier per proposal.