Carbon cycle: atmosphere (870 GtC), land biosphere (2000 GtC soil + 450 GtC vegetation), ocean (38,000 GtC). Anthropogenic emissions: 10 GtC/year. Ocean acidification: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-. Tipping points: AMOC collapse (Atlantic meridional overturning), Greenland ice sheet (1.5-2°C threshold), Amazon dieback, permafrost methane release. Radiative forcing: W/m². Climate sensitivity: ECS (equilibrium climate sensitivity) 2.5-4°C per CO2 doubling. Carbon capture: DAC (direct air...
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